grammaticalisation This is an historical process in language which refers to a change in status from lexical to grammatical for certain elements, frequently due to semantic bleaching (loss of lexical meaning). dental A place of articulation characterised by the tip of the tongue being held against the back of the upper teeth, for instance in the pronunciation of /t,d/ in Italian, Swedish, etc. Also called a stop, examples are /p,t,k/. dictionary A reference work which offers varied information — usually arranged in alphabetical order — about words in a language, such as their spelling, pronunciation, meaning and possibly historical origins, additional shades of meaning, typical combinations (collocations) and status vis à vis the standard of the language concerned. The lexicon of a pidgin is usually taken from the lexifier language (the European one in question) and its grammar may derive from native input (such as the languages of West Africa during the slave trade with the Caribbean and America) or may take elements from the lexifier language or may 'invent' its own structures going on an innate blueprint which many linguists assume speakers have from birth. Historically, diphthongs tend to develop from long vowels. Although some writers on language had recognised the importance of social factors in linguistic behaviour it was not until the 1960's with the seminal work of Labov that the attention of large numbers of linguists was focussed on language use in a social context. This field is particularly concerned with etymology and with the general historical value of the information which names offer the linguist. The lexicon of a pidgin is usually taken from the lexifier language (the European one in question) and its grammar may derive from native input (such as the languages of West Africa during the slave trade with the Caribbean and America) or may take elements from the lexifier language or may 'invent' its own structures going on an innate blueprint which many linguists assume speakers have from birth. The boundaries between dialects are always gradual. Typically it involves the raising of the basic frequency and/or of volume matched by a prolongation of the syllable involved. A paradigm can be thought of as a vertical list of forms which can occupy a slot in a syntagm. There are more distinctions available than just those found in European languages, for instance languages may distinguish between a personal form for 'we' which includes the addressee and one which does not. pronoun A grammatical element which refers to a noun previously mentioned; as such it has a deictic or anaphoric function as in The lecturer was here and he spoke to us on a special topic. embedding The insertion of one syntactic phrase or unit within another, e.g. Change ), You are commenting using your Facebook account. See Incorporating. suffix Any element attached to the right- hand side of a stem. With the advent of structuralism at the beginning of the 20th century, it became oriented towards viewing language at one point in time. drift An imperceptible change in the typology of a language in a more or less constant direction as with the shift from synthetic to analytic in the course of the history of English. in the formation of the English standard, Received Pronunciation, which derives from a city dialect (that of London in the late Middle Ages) but which has long since become a sociolect (Cockney being the dialect of London nowadays). nasal A sound, vowel or consonant, which is produced by opening the nasal cavity (through lowering of the velum). diachronic Refers to language viewed over time and contrasts with synchronic which refers to a point in time. discourse analysis The investigation of the structure and patterning of discourse (human speech). It contrasts explicitly with the comparative method which relies on evidence from related languages. semantics The study of meaning in language. metalanguage The language which is used to discuss language; see also object language. A second usage was in the process of derivation, i.e. It contrasts explicitly with the notion that knowledge of language is gained by experience (a view typical of behaviourism in psychology). code switching Moving from one language to another within a single sentence or phrase. It's cold in here said in a room with the window open in winter where the intention of the speech act would be to have the window closed. I rise [bəʊt] for boat. For this reason new languages, like pidgins and creoles, are never synthetic in type. Language typology is the study of the synchronic structure of languages for the purpose of classifying them according to recurring patterns and regularities. the past tense form went in English is not formally related to the verb go. denotation The relationship between a word and the non-linguistic, 'outside' world. pluperfect A form of verbs found in many Indo-European languages and which expresses an action which is in the remote past; those languages which possess such a tense also have a simple tense which is understood to refer to a time closer to the present. The physical correlates of stress can vary. synthetic A language which is characterised by an extensive inflectional morphology, e.g. between active or passive sentences. I studied linguistics in London when I was in my twenties. it is a reference to the collection of phonetic features which allow a speaker to be identified regionally or socially. linguistic universals A postulated set of linguistic features which are common to all languages and which ultimately derive from our psychological make-up and our perception of the world, e.g. Here many linguists assumed that various transformations were necessary. linguistic stigma The condemnation of certain forms in a language by the majority of a social group. Unproductive processes can nonetheless be statistically common, again umlaut is unproductive but occurs with words which have a high frequency in German because they belong to the core of the language — mainly names of beings, parts of the body, etc. Each segment has different realisations which are only partly distinguishable for speakers. This is an English term which refers to purely spoken forms of a language. She admits that rising above these established ideas is difficult but she encourages women to speak and write so that they may obtain liberation. word class A group of words which are similar in their grammatical characteristics: the kinds of inflections they take, their distribution in sentences and the relations they enter with other sets of words. The cardinal vowels are represented in a quadrangle with vowels at each corner and two closed mid and open mid vowels, a pair in the front and a pair in the back of the quadrangle. Examples are Modern English and French to a certain extent. zero Any element which is postulated by the linguist but which has no realisation in language, e.g. She was also for a long time associated with the Harlem Writer’s Guild where in an inspirational moment, listening to Martin Luther King, she perhaps decided to become an active participant the civil rights struggle. The tongue may also show a groove, for instance with palato-alveolar fricatives such as /ʃ, ʒ/. She does not require others to complement her being, or to complete her. as a syntactic unit (phrase or sentence). with the present participle as in He is writing a new book, or to show that an action has been completed, e.g. Historically, diphthongs tend to develop from long vowels. Substratum influence is often quoted as being instrumental in the formation of pidgins and creoles and as being responsible for many instances of historical change. neologism A new word in the vocabulary of a language. between active or passive sentences. The mutual influence which results from such contact can and does lead to changes in the structure — or at least in the lexicon — of one or both languages. The grounds for such differentiation may be social, historical, spatial or a combination of these. if it distinguishes meaning. The term is a translation of German Sprachbund, lit. reconstruction A technique for determining earlier forms of a language. vernacular The indigenous language or dialect of a community. variety A term used to refer to any variant of a language which can be sufficiently delimited from another variant. dependent Any linguistic element which requires the presence of another in a structure or whose form is determined by another element or a grammatical category, for instance the form of the definite article in German which depends on the gender, number and case of the noun it co-occurs with. This is a major difference between English and German, cf. /k/ > /c/ > /tæ/ > /tʃ/ (> /ʃ/) as can be seen in the development of Latin camera to Modern French chambre. the lowering of short /u/ in the Early Modern English period which does not apply to instances before [ʃ] and after a labial stop: bush, push. The distinction between the two forms arises from the fact that these can occupy one and the same slot in a syntagm, i.e. noun One of the major parts of speech which refers to objects in the non-linguistic world or to notions which are regarded as forming entities parallel to real-world objects, e.g. which refers to the past viewed from the time at which an utterance is spoken. The number of corpora available has increased greatly since the spread of the personal computer in the 1980's. For example if a speaker from northern England pronounces butcher /butʃə/ with the vowel in but, i.e. analytic A term used for a language which tends to use free morphemes to indicate grammatical categories. taxonomic A reference to linguistics in which the main aim is to list and classify features and phenomena. Considering that she was the first female black Hollywood director, it seems almost impossible to fathom that Angelou could have been raped by someone close in the family at a tender age of seven. law A formulation of an ordered or predictable relationship between forms. These are usually grouped into word fields so that the vocabulary can be said to show an internal structure. interference The transfer of certain phenomena from one language to another where they are not considered grammatical. the first part of raspberry in English which does not occur independently. Language change onomastics The linguistic study of names, both personal and place names. Such areas usually form an approximate geographical unit, e.g. Cases of lexical diffusion are characterised by incompleteness, otherwise it is not recognisable afterwards and is a case of normal change which affects the entire vocabulary. Normally there is a distinction between singular and plural as well. idiom A set of words which always co-occur and where the meaning is not necessarily derived by concatenating the individual parts of the idiom, e.g to take coals to Newcastle 'to do something entirely superfluous'. quantifier Any term which serves to indicate an amount such as all, some, a few, or the set of numerals in a language. /ʌn/ in undoable but also /ɪm/ in impossible. there are few if any words which are semantically isolated. The English word hussey is a reduced form of 'housewife' and because of loss of transparency underwent a semantic shift to 'unpleasant woman' with the transparent housewife being re-introduced into the language. The term is a translation of German Sprachbund, lit. Classically pidgins arose during trade between European countries and those outside of Europe. It is formed with little friction and has a high degree of sonority which accounts for why glides are found near the nucleus of syllables. closed class A term which refers to any linguistic level whose elements form a relatively small number which is not altered by the individual speaker. language death The process by which a language ceases to exist. It contrasts explicitly with the notion that knowledge of language is gained by experience (a view typical of behaviourism in psychology). The term declension can also be used for classes of nouns which conform to a certain paradigm. A major alternative to this was the wave model of Johannes Schmidt (1870). You may write me down in history displacement One of the key characteristics of human language which enables it to refer to situations which are not here and now, e.g. In the poem under consideration, “Still I Rise” also, she explores the atrocities subjected at women of race, as well as women in general, as well as the process of painful anguish which results in women coming out ultimately as stronger individuals. Lexical borrowing can be due to written influence as with the English loanwords in Modern German yielding so-called 'cultural borrowings'. singular A grammatical category which indicates a single occurrence of something. Note that the 'oldest meaning' is a fiction in itself as it is usually impossible to trace words back to their initial use, this lying in pre-history. If exposure to a language begins considerably later then acquisition rarely results in native-like competence. the lexeme walk unites the various forms walk, walks, walked, walking. It is characterised by the switch over to some other language which surrounds the dying language and which is a superstratum to it, e.g. The same applies to native speakers of Rhenish German when they pronounce Kirschen like Kirchen when they are talking to speakers of High German.       Semantics and pragmatics the weak conjugation would refer to all verbs in English (or German) which form their past tense by suffixation of an alveolar stop and not by an alteration of the root vowel. where a feature in a present-day dialect is taken to derive from both substrate interference and language-internal developments. universal Any feature or property which holds for all languages. colour, furniture, food, clothes. It is usually implied that no attempt for linguistic generalisations is made. See Incorporating. Language change is the investigation of the manner in which languages change their structure over time. error A characteristic mistake made by learners of a second language, usually traceable to a structural feature of their native language. Here many linguists assumed that various transformations were necessary. For instance phonemes, grammatical morphemes and syntactic structures are a closed set but the lexicon is definitely an open class as it is continuously expanding. on disk — which has been compiled for the purpose of subsequent analysis. of nouns and the elements which can qualify them. Conversion is a common feature of analytical languages such as English. The term is a translation of German Sprachbund, lit. predicative A reference to an adjective which occurs after a form of the copula be instead of before the noun it qualifies. levelling The disappearance of contrasts — usually phonological or morphological — in the course of a language's development. dependent Any linguistic element which requires the presence of another in a structure or whose form is determined by another element or a grammatical category, for instance the form of the definite article in German which depends on the gender, number and case of the noun it co-occurs with. pronoun A grammatical element which refers to a noun previously mentioned; as such it has a deictic or anaphoric function as in The lecturer was here and he spoke to us on a special topic. A major alternative to this was the wave model of Johannes Schmidt (1870). It may be lexical (the most obvious and common type of borrowing) but also syntactic, morphological or phonological. It is usually implied that no attempt for linguistic generalisations is made. Research here tends to concentrate on developing models to explain the process and ideally they should be applied to the actually teaching of foreign languages to improve results. It contrasts explicitly with analyses of written language or of contrived examples in linguistic works. adjective A word class which generally qualifies a noun. sense relations The semantic relationships which obtain between words as opposed to those which hold between words and the outside world. The word cardiac is a Greek loan as it is derived from the word for 'heart' in the latter language although it is ultimately related to English heart as both stem from the same root in Indo-European *kerd. Acquisition is unconscious, largely unguided and shows a high degree of completeness compared to second language learning. It is characterised by the switch over to some other language which surrounds the dying language and which is a superstratum to it, e.g. Given its concrete nature pronunciation is a matter of phonetics rather than phonology. typological classification The ordering of language on the basis of shared grammatical structure rather than on historical or genetic grounds. The further development of a pidgin is a creole, although this stage does not have to be reached if there is no necessity to develop a native language. idiom A set of words which always co-occur and where the meaning is not necessarily derived by concatenating the individual parts of the idiom, e.g to take coals to Newcastle 'to do something entirely superfluous'. The associations a word which contains more than one morpheme whereas a root only! A constant position, e.g of structure where both subject and object have the same to... May write me down in history… you may write me down in history… you may ”, “ ”! 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